Overview

This is a curated collection of resources on specialized programming languages executed by decentralized peer-to-peer networks, also known as blockchains.

Let us define a smart contract, or simply contract, as a piece of code created by a blockchain user and executed by a blockchain node. A smart contract language (SCL) is a programming language that is either used to write a smart contract directly, or is compiled to it.

Programming languages differ on multiple dimensions, such as paradigm and type system. Due to a very unusual execution environment, SCLs have a different set of trade-offs compared to earlier languages. This spawned multiple attempts at creating secure and expressive SCLs.

Pre-Bitcoin

• A formal language for analyzing contracts - an essay by Nick Szabo
• E - referenced by Szabo

Bitcoin

• Bitcoin Script - a stack-based non Turing complete Forth-like language used to write script that determine whether a UTXO can be spent.
• Ivy - a non Turing complete higher-level language that compiles to Bitcoin Script (announcement)
• Simplicity - a typed functional programming language utilizing combinators blog post, another one
• BitML - a process calculus based language, compiles to Bitcoin script (article)
• BALZaC - a high-level language based on the formal model proposed in [AB+18FC]
• Miniscript - a language for writing (a subset of) Bitcoin Scripts in a structured way, enabling analysis, composition, generic signing and more
  • Policy Language - nicer language that compiles to Miniscript
• Sapio
• Minsc - a high-level scripting language for expressing Bitcoin Script spending conditions based on Miniscript Policy

Ethereum

Last update in 2020:

• Ethereum bytecode - a Turing complete stack-based language executed by the Ethereum virtual machine (EVM)
• Solidity - a high-level imperative statically typed language compiled to EVM
• Vyper - a high-level language compiled to EVM (announcement of formal tools from RV)
• Fe - a language inspired by Vyper aiming to achieve its goals
• eWASM - a restricted subset of WebAssembly for Ethereum contracts
• Idris - a pure functional language with dependent types
• Flint - a type-safe, contract-oriented programming language specifically designed for writing robust smart contracts on Ethereum
• Formality - an efficient programming language featuring formal proofs
• Huff - an efficient low-level language with macros
• Lira - a declarative domain-specific language for defining simple yet highly complex financial contracts for EVM
• Zinc - a language to write zero-knowledge circuits and ZKP-based smart contracts

No updates after 2018:

• Bamboo - a high-level "formal-verification-friendly" language compiled to EVM
• Pyramid - An EVM backend for SICP Scheme
• Lolisa - subset of Solidity
• Logikon - an experimental language for smart contracts

No updates after 2017:

• LLL - a "low-level Lisp-like language" compiled to EVM bytecode (blog post, series of blog posts)
• functional-solidity-language - pretty much self-descriptive :)
• Serpent - a Python-like high-level language compiled to EVM (deprecated due to security issues with the compiler)
• Babbage - "a mechanical smart contract language"
• SolidityX - a typed-superset of Solidity

No updates after 2016:

• L4 - a language "based on deontic modal logic", presented at Devcon 2 (Sep 2016)
• Mutan - a C-like language compiled to EVM (deprecated)

IRs

• Yul (ex JULIA, ex IULIA) - an intermediate language that can be compiled to bytecode for different backends.
• Yul+ - a low-level, highly efficient extension to Yul
• SlithIR - an intermediate representation that is used by Slither to enable high-precision analysis via a simple API. It supports taint and value tracking to enable detection of complex patterns.
• Elle - The Elle source language, also known as Elle-Core, captures structured programming abstractions and enables their translation to Ethereum EVM bytecode through a verified compiler.

DSLs

• Alacrity - a DSL for simple, formally-verified DApps
• Ergo - Domain specific language for smart legal contracts
• Sandcastle - a SQL Ethereum smart contract language
• FSolidM - framework for visual programming of Finite State Machines
• Findel - a non Turing complete financial DSL inspired by a S.P.Jones' work
• the language from the paper by Egelund-Müller et al
• Chorus - a financial contractual markup language by Firmo network
• ADICO - a domain-specific language to support the contract modeling process
• ink! - an embedded DSL for writing WebAssembly based smart contracts using the Rust programming language and targeting Substrate blockchains. Documentation

Other blockchains

• Move - a safe and flexible programming language for the Libra Blockchain
• Michelson - a stack based and strongly typed domain-specific language (Tezos)
• Liquidity - a high-level typed smart-contract language that strictly complies to Michelson security restrictions (Tezos)
• fi (Tezos)
• LIGO (Tezos)
• Plutus - a pure functional language with user-defined data types and polymorphism (Cardano); compiles to Plutus Core (video)
• Marlowe - a domain-specific language for smart contract language embedded in Plutus (Cardano)
• Rholang - a reflective higher-order process calculus language (RChain)
• Obsidian - a state-oriented language with linear types
• DAML - a smart contract language of Digital Asset
• Simvolio (Apla blockchain platform)
• RIDE - a non Turing complete language infulenced by Scala and F# (Waves)
• Scilla - an intermediate level language for verified smart contracts (Zilliqa)
• TxVM (Chain)
• IELE - a variant of LLVM specialized to execute smart contracts on the blockchain
• Pact - a smart contract language with a Lisp syntax but Haskell-like types (Kadena)
• Ledger Design Language - a modeling language for describing public ledgers
• Sigma-State (Ergo)
• Sophia - a strongly typed language in the ML family (Æternity)
• Varna - a non Turing complete high-level language (Æternity)
• Fift - a stack-based general purpose programming language optimized for TON Blockchain smart contracts (TON)
• Clarity (Blockstack)
• Ethermint (Cosmos)
• Secure EcmaScript (Cosmos)
• Kadenamint (Cosmos)
• Rell (Chromia)

Other links

• https://github.com/pirapira/fp-ethereum - a collection of links related to function programming for Ethereum
• Smart Contract Languages Development to Follow - a post by Matt Suiche, Comae (Dec 2017)